However, the effect present in infants appears to have greater plasticity than the effect reported in adults. This discrimination bias may represent an early manifestation of a similar deficit seen in adults, which is typically called the other-race effect (ORE Meissner & Brigham, 2001). Conversely, infants raised primarily by a male caregiver demonstrate a preference for male faces over female faces ( Quinn, Yahr, Kuhn, Slater & Pascalis, 2002).įor the attribute of race, Sangrigoli and de Schonen (2004) have recently demonstrated that at 3 months of age Caucasian infants are able to discriminate between own-race faces, but not other-race faces. With respect to gender, at 3 months of age, infants raised primarily by a female caregiver demonstrate a preference for female faces over male faces and are better able to discriminate among female faces than among male faces. Experiential effects on face processing have thus far been reported for the attributes of gender, race and species. There is mounting evidence in support of the proposal that the face processing system is shaped by the faces seen in the visual environment ( de Schonen & Mathivet, 1989 Morton & Johnson, 1991 Nelson, 2001). Collectively, these findings suggest that newborns very rapidly form a face representation, are sensitive to subtle physiognomic variations, attend to internal facial features and learn from faces in their visual environment. Furthermore, newborns will imitate an array of facial gestures performed by an adult ( Meltzoff & Moore, 1977). Also, newborns demonstrate a preference for attractive over unattractive faces ( Slater, von der Schulenburg, Brown, Badenoch, Butterworth, Parsons & Samuels, 1998) and use information from internal facial features when making this preference ( Slater, Bremner, Johnson, Sherwood, Hayes & Brown, 2000). In the first few days of life, newborn infants demonstrate a visual preference for faces ( Fantz, 1963 Goren, Sarty & Wu, 1975 Johnson, Dziurawiec, Ellis & Morton, 1991 Maurer & Young, 1983 Valenza, Simion, Macchi Cassia & Umiltà, 1996 but see Easterbrook, Kisilevsky, Hains & Muir, 1999), a preference for their mother's face over a stranger's face ( Bushnell, Sai & Mullin, 1989 Field, Cohen, Garcia & Greenburg, 1984 Pascalis, de Schonen, Morton, Deruelle & Fabre-Grenet, 1995) and the ability to discriminate between faces from their own-ethnic group ( Pascalis & de Schonen, 1994). However, while the origins of ethnic categorization must originate from some form of sensitivity to ethnic differences, exactly when and how such knowledge develops is unclear. Hirschfeld (1998) suggests that sensitivity to ethnicity is more than knowledge concerning observable, physical differences and instead is a specialized cognitive strategy for reasoning about human collectives.
#8 MONTH OLD BLACK BABY BOYS SKIN#
It is likely that both skin color and physiognomic differences are used to make such judgements.
Adults very rapidly make judgements and categorize people according to ethnicity ( Levin, 2000 Valentine & Endo, 1992). Historically, the perception of human races has had major ramifications for the social and economic livelihoods of people throughout the world.
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